TSUNESABURO MAKIGUCHI'S VIEW OF RELIGION（3）

5 Application of Value Science Method to Religion

After volume two of “the System of Value-Creating Pedagogy,” Makiguchi’s next discussion of his view of religion and Nichiren Buddhism appears in “Outline of the System of Value-Creating Pedagogy.” This work represents the first attempt to summarize Nichiren Shoshu doctrines pertaining to Nichiren’s identity as the original Buddha, but it contains no important change in Makiguchi’s view of religion or his interpretation of Nichiren Buddhism.
The first major theoretical development of Makiguchi’s view of religion is found in his essay, “「科学と宗教との関係を論ず」On the Relationship of Science and Religion ” which was published in “『新教』Shinkyo (New Teaching),” the journal of Soka Kyoiku Gakkai (Value-Creating Education Society), in 1936. In this essay, Makiguchi develops his own ideas on scientific investigation of religion, while criticizing a treatise by the prominent scientist Atsushi Ishiwara entitled “「科学と宗教」Science and Religion” that had appeared in “『帝国教育』Teikoku Kyoiku (Imperial Education).” Taking the conflict between Christianity and the natural science as his starting point, Ishiwara proposes that deism, which seeks to discover divine laws in the regular movements of nature, is scientific religion. He treats those areas that science cannot illuminate from an agnostic perspective, claiming that a religious view in such cases amounts to superstition. Ishiwara’s deistic way of thinking would reject the religious quest for happiness through prayer as a function of superstition (Ishiwara, p. 245).
Makiguchi claims that Ishiwara does not understand the essential nature of religious phenomena, adding that by simply denouncing religious phenomena as superstition, he fails to deal with the issue of superstition itself (vol. 9, p. 78). From there, Makiguchi turns to an investigation of the possibility of the scientific study of religious phenomena.
Makiguchi proposes that science be divided into “natural science, whose objects are natural phenomena just as they are, and value science, whose objects are arts and creations and other value-laden phenomena (vol. 9, p. 82).”
The category of “value science” can be seen as an outgrowth of Makiguchi’s argument concerning applied science, which is developed in volume one of “the System of Value-Creating Pedagogy.” There, Makiguchi says regarding applied science:
Applied science takes the value-creating activities of human beings as the objects of research. Discovering cause-and ?effect relationships between the objectives and means, it seeks to establish the laws of causality at work in value-creating activities. As a result, applied science will eventually provide laws that should become the basic principles of value-creating activities (vol. 5, p. 60).
Here Makiguchi suggests the possibility of conducting scientific research into the value-creating activities of human beings. In his essay, “On the Relationship of Science and Religion”, he gives applied science the name “value science” and asserts the possibility of scientific research on value phenomena.
Not only do natural science and value science differ in their objects of research, but the research methods differ as well. Natural science discovers truth by three-step procedure consisting of observation of natural phenomena, inductive reasoning, and experimental demonstration. The methods of value science differ, however:
The method by which a craftsman transmits to a disciple the skill acquired from his study and practice is not the cognitive process of observation and reasoning employed by the natural scientist. Rather, the disciple is made to learn by directly watching what the teacher does, and is made to perform the task himself without any explanation; only afterwards is he given an explanation (vol. 9, p. 82).
Only when a skill is acquired in such a manner, Makiguchi argues, can something of value be created. Accordingly, for value science, which is supposed to study the efficacy of the technical skill employed in the creation of value, the first requirement is an approach that trusts the transmitted skill and seeks to implement it. Explaining the importance placed on the actual use of the technical skill, Makiguchi says that skill or craft is developed by the unconscious accumulation of experience:
The arduous training and accumulated experience unconsciously gained through practical living allow craftsmen and artists to discover a better way to live before they ever study or think. With that discovery, they devote their lives to benefiting themselves and others (vol. 9, p. 83).
Makiguchi explains the purpose of value science, showing how its objective is the same as that of applied science:
Taking the accumulated experience of craftsmen and artists as the object of study, value science will collect, compare, and integrate these experiences t discover the best method. The aim of value science shall be to provide guiding principles for people to attain lives of the greatest happiness, based on the assumption that in order to achieve the same effects, one must generate the same causes (ibid).
Arguing that value creation through religion and value creation through technical skill and art take place in the same way, Makiguchi states:
In religion, as well, personal religious experience is possible by believing in and following the example of pioneers who have achieved extraordinary power through experience. Adapting one’s life to this law of cause and effect and incorporating it into daily life will bring about the same kind of improvement in one’s life as that achieved with technical skill or art (vol. 9, p. 86).
As to why the method of value science should apply to religion, Makiguchi says:
In the case of religion, as with any skill or art, one can grasp the essence only through the method of value science, for it, too, requires experience of faith and practice, and evaluation. It is not enough simply to rely on objective perception, as is done in the natural science, because the existence of religion is justified only when it provides the value of fulfilling people’s prayers for happiness in their lives. Religions that bring no benefit will not nourish people’s faith.
The object of religious faith is not simply the powerful majesty of nature. Rather, it is found in prayer for benefit and acquiring value, in belief that is manifested as the desire to dedicate oneself to and internalize the faith, and in seeking to secure stability and happiness in life (vol. 9, p. 88).
Makiguchi asserts that since the essential nature of religion lies in providing value to fulfill people’s prayer for happiness in life, it is crucial to determine how much value a religion can provide with the method of value science.
Taking his thoughts about the essential nature of religion to their logical conclusion, Makiguchi proposes comparing all religions through value science:
Once the essential nature of religion is clear, the classification of religions into grades of true and false, superior and inferior, and greater and lesser. … shall be justly determined on these merits by comparing and contrasting the value, that is, the benefit of each religion and each sect, and studying each teaching from the standpoint of documentary proof, actual fact and reasoning. The identification, finally, of the highest religion will lead to the religious revolution that we are advocating (vol. 9, p. 90).
In “On the Relationship of Science and Religion,” we see a deepening of Makiguchi’s view of religion. In volume two of “the System of Value-Creating Pedagogy,” he posited the possibility of determining the superiority of a certain religion by looking into its similarities with science. Here, he argues that one can find the religion with the highest value through a comparative investigation of value of all religions, using the method of value science.

6 Theory of “Punishment by the Law”

　　　　Although Makiguchi worked out the method of value science research in “On the Relationship of Science and Religion,” it is not until “『創価教育法の科学的超宗教的実験証明』Soka kyoikuho no kagakuteki cho-shukyoteki shomei [Scientific and Ultimate-religious Experimental Proof of the Value-Creating Education Method” (1937), hereinafter referred to as “Experimental Proof”] that he used this method to demonstrate that Nichiren Buddhism is the highest religion.
In “Experimental Proof,” Makiguchi states that studying religion through value science requires a distinction to be made between two types of research processes: one seeks to discover truth concerning value, and the other seeks to corroborate that truth. The difference between the tow, he says, that one pertains to the view of truth, and the other to the view of value (vol. 8, p. 52). It is easy to tell, he says, whether a teaching concerning value is true or not by applying it to daily life:
We can determine whether or not a so-called truth has value of being useful in life, and whether it is of a major or miner kind, only by proving it in daily life through experience. Therefore, while researchers seeking to establish its credibility must use various means to explain it, but once it has been established, they should simply try applying it as instructed. And if results occur as expected, they should quickly place unconditional faith in it. … In the event that the results do not match the expectation, they may judge them as inconclusively true and think about redoing the research (vol. 8, p. 53).
　　The point of emphasis here is not the research process to discover truth concerning value, but the research process to corroborate truth concerning value.
Again, with regard to research method corroborating truth concerning value, Makiguchi says:
In the first place one must believe in the words of a person who speaks the truth, someone of sufficient caliber to be called a teacher. Then, after putting the teachings into practice and proving through experience whether or not they have any value, one can put faith in the Law that governs daily life and discard subjective and worthless idealism, even parting from the persons [from whom one learned of such teachings]. Further, one can develop his faith even more by proving its value through research based on scriptures and reasoning.
Then, with such elevated state of faith, one might continue to investigate, compare and contrast the value of different teachings, clarifying which is great and farsighted and which is minor and shortsighted. At length, one will arrive at the supreme and unparalleled secret principle, and then, for the first time, attain a state of peace and security that is free of all fear.
This research method consisting of “faith,”“practice” and “study,” in that order, completely differs from the method of [natural] science. Accordingly, this method should be applicable to research into everything from technical skill and art to ways of living. And we are in fact unconsciously applying it to the practice and implementation of various skills and arts (vol. 8, p. 74).
Makiguchi discusses the significance of applying this value science research method to the study of religion:
Considering tradition until the twentieth century, such a change in religious research methods may be attacked as an alarming heterodoxy. However, the original need of people for religion is not that it simply elucidate truth, while remaining divorced from their lives; much more, it must be a stabilizing force in people’s lives, in the present and the future. It must be bound to the destiny of people in their happiness and misery.
If people awaken to this and realize that, in essence, religion is no way different from all other value phenomena, they will understand the new methods on their own. It would become clear how easy it would be to compare and integrate all the countless religions of every country of the world, and to carry out revolution in each household and each country. That is what I mean by “ultimate-religion (vol. 8, p. 75).”
　　In other words, Makiguchi argues that since a comparison of the superiority and inferiority of religions based on the value they provide in people’s lives is feasible, it would be possible to compare and integrate all religions.
Related to these ideas on method for investigating religions, Makiguchi identifies three characteristics of Nichiren Buddhism:
(1) Nichiren Buddhism proves the law of cause and effect that operates over endless time and space and through both the spiritual and physical realms. It reveals the basis for gain and loss, good and evil. It makes known the ultimate purpose of life. And it establishes the principle of how to live so as to realize the greatest value. At the same time, to help believers to achieve such results, Nichiren Buddhism provides the following two concrete procedures.
(2) Nichiren Buddhism teaches a means of discerning good and evil, based on this, a method of penitence and expiation of sins. It enables one to become a good person and to fundamentally restore one’s daily life. It produces purity like that of the lotus flower emerging from the muddy swamp. And in this way it eliminates evil causes created in the past and guarantees that one will experience good effects in the future. In this sense, it is similar to how trust is restored as a result of paying off old debts.
(3) Nichiren Buddhism enables one to have no fear of devils and obstacles struggling to emerge from both within and without. It further lets one take the initiative in driving those negative forces [to the surface] and conquering them, with the result that one’s faith becomes all the stronger. By using such experiences, to lead others in the faith, one gains more benefit than from repaying old debts. Just like poison that is transformed into medicine, one’s misfortunes become blessings. Thus, it teaches the means for attaining the state of greatest happiness (vol. 8, p. 64).
Here, Makiguchi first brings up a theoretical aspect of Nichiren Buddhism, namely, that it teaches the principle for leading a life of the greatest value. Next he says that it enables an individual to produce a fundamental reformation of his or her life. And third, he states that it helps one to lead a life of greatest happiness, the life of great good, which will be discussed below (in Section 7).
Makiguchi thought that, if one applied the three-step approach of value science, faith, practice and study, to Nichiren Buddhism, one would definitely realize the goal of achieving a life of the greatest happiness. The point he had already articulated in “On the Relationship of Science and Religion.” In “Experimental Proof,” Makiguchi goes one step further and presents the case for his theory of “punishment by the Law.”
Makiguchi explains the necessity of the concept of punishment saying:
The newly arisen ultimate-religion must first address the issue of sanctioning authority. A set of rules, no matter how meticulous, that lacks the power to punish exists in name only and has no substance. In the same way a god that does not have the power to punish evil persons will not have the power to protect the good. That god will not be able to hold people’s trust. In determining whether or not a religion has value, and whether that value is of a major or miner kind, we must first find out if it contains the power to punish, and on this basis decide whether to adopt or reject it (vol. 8, p. 81).
In brief, Makiguchi asserts that the idea of punishment by the Law is a necessary point to be investigated when determining the value of a religion. He replies to Nichiren Shoshu clergy who questioned or opposed the idea of punishment:
We common mortals cannot predict the time and circumstances [when punishment will fall]. And exceptions are of course frequent. In some cases a person of great evil whom one would expect to be punished quickly, actually experiences none. As a result, even clergy are not confident on this point, and they are reluctant to attempt dealing with actual proof.
However, Nichiren Daishonin says, “Buddhism primarily concerns itself with victory or defeat, while government is based on the principle of reward and punishment.” This can be considered the very life of religion. Were it not for this principle, we would be left with just a philosophical theory dealing with truth which people could choose to believe in or not as they wished. Having come this far in pursuit of the principle of living, we should not now avoid the matter (vol. 8, p. 83).
　　Makiguchi thus asserts that the concept of punishment is an inevitable theoretical conclusion of doctrines of Nichiren Buddhism.
As to the manner in which punishment appears, Makiguchi proposes the following three empirical laws and call for experimental investigation:
(1) It seems that the more genuine a person’s faith, the sooner actual proof will appear in the lives of those around him.
(2) The stronger the ties others have with a believer, the sooner actual proof will be manifested [in their lives]. In other words, actual proof will appear earlier or later in the lives of others depending on the degree of their familiarity with or estrangement from, and proximity to or distance from, the believer.
(3) There are differences in how early or late actual proof appears in others depending on the lightness or gravity of their offenses. In extreme instances, there are cases of people who, no matter how severe their slander of the Law, receive no punishment in their present lives.
What is the reason for this? We can understand the reason easily enough if we turn the concept of punishment on its head and view it as the manifestation not evil but of compassion. That is, since the great Law mercifully functions to help a person quickly secure a peaceful and happy life, the Law causes the person to repent of and expiate his sins according to the principle of poison becoming medicine. This is because it is best that the person be relieved of his heavy burden as soon as possible.
On the other hand, in the case of an incorrigible person of evil, since no amount of punishment has any effect whatsoever, we should take it that the Buddha simply lets time run its course and does not interfere (vol. 8, p. 84).
With his theory of punishment by the Law, Makiguchi has completed his value science research on religion. In “On the Relationship of Science and Religion,” he had stated that only a person who believes in and practices a religion can, through the value he thereby gains, understand experientially whether the religion is true of false; such understanding shall elude those who neither believe in nor practice a teaching. However, in “Experimental Proof” (in an argument that specially applies to Nichiren Buddhism, because it teaches a value-oriented way of living), he argues that even a person who does not believe in a religion can see whether a religion is true or not through the phenomenon of punishment. This reflects Makiguchi’s conviction that the universal applicability of religion could be investigated by means of value science; that all people, regardless of whether they believes in a religion, could experientially tell if it was a true religion through the value phenomena of benefit and punishment.
In the foregoing attempt to delineate the development of Makiguchi’s thought on the relationship of religion and science, we have seen consistency in his consideration of religion on the analogy of science, and from standpoint of its actual value in daily life. Integrating these two elements, he produces a unique method of appraising religion that views religion as a teaching on the laws of value, and that judges religions as superior or inferior by using value science to determine whether they produce a greater or lesser degree of value in life; and this, in turn, becomes the basis for determining their truth or falsity. Makiguchi was thus attempting to provide a rational basis for making choices in an area that is exceptionally prone to futile quarreling. In this endeavor, Makiguchi’s own view of religion emerged with clarity.
Makiguchi was confident that the superiority, in terms of value, of Nichiren Buddhism would be borne out by his value science research method. Once the Soka Kyoiku Gakkai made a religious movement its main objective, many articles relating faith experiences of punishment or benefit began appearing in its periodicals “『価値創造』Kachi Sozo (Value Creation)” and “『大善生活実証録』Daizen Seikatsu Jisshoroku (Records of Actual Proof of the Life of Great Good).” In a piece entitled “「大善生活法実験証明の指導要領」Guidelines on Experimental Proof of the Method of the Life of Great Good,” Makiguchi wrote:
It was our intention to prove scientifically that the Mystic Law, the ultimate teaching of Buddhism, is the necessary law of life for all people. Now, the accumulation of positive and negative proof (i.e., effects of happiness and misfortune), has shown that the Daishonin’s Buddhism is not merely true as an abstract philosophical concept, but constitutes the limitless wellspring of life force that is manifested in our actual lives (vol. 10, p. 132).

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